Dispersion of company markups internationally

Stéphane Auray and AurélienEyquem

The
strong globalization of economies has increased interest in the importance of markups
for companies with an international orientation. A markup is defined as the
difference between the marginal cost of production and the selling price.
Empirical evidence is accumulating to show that these markups have increased
significantly in recent years (Autor, Dorn, Katz, Patterson, and Reenen, 2017;
Loecker, Eeckhout, and Unger, 2020) and that large corporations account for a
growing share of the aggregate fluctuations (Gabaix, 2011). Moreover, the
dispersion of markups is considered in the literature as a potential source of a
misallocation of resources – capital and labour – in both economies considered to
be closed to international trade (see Restuccia and Rogerson, 2008, or Baqaee
and Farhi, 2020) and economies considered to be open to trade (Holmes, Hsu and
Lee, 2014, or Edmond, Midrigan and Xu, 2015). Finally, it has recently been
shown by Gaubert and Itskhoki (2020) that these markups are a key determinant
of the granular origin – i.e. linked to the activity of big exporters – of
comparative advantages, or in other words, they may be a determinant of trade competitiveness.

In
a recent paper (Auray and Eyquem, 2021), we introduce a dispersion of profit
margins by assuming strategic pricing viaBertrand-type competition in a
two-country model with endogenous variety effects and international trade along
the lines of Ghironi and Melitz (2005). Our aim is to understand the
interaction between these margins, firm productivity and entry-and-exit
phenomena in domestic and foreign markets. If there are distortions in the
allocation of resources, as is usually the case in these models, our corollary
objective is to study the implementation of optimal fiscal policy.

In
models with heterogeneous firms such as Ghironi and Melitz (2005), firms are
assumed to be heterogeneous in terms of individual productivity. The most
productive firms are more likely to enter markets, because they are better able
to pay fixed entry costs, whether in local or export markets. Moreover, because
these firms are more efficient, their production costs are lower, which allows
them to capture larger market shares. These effects, which seem relatively
intuitive, have already been widely validated empirically.

In
general, the introduction of strategic pricing behaviour allows firms with
larger market shares to benefit from greater price-setting power, which leads
them to charge higher markups – it being understood that the resulting selling
prices may be lower than those of their competitors. A growing literature on
international trade emphasises the importance of this kind of strategic
behaviour and the resulting dispersion of markups for determining patterns of
trade openness and their sectoral composition (see, for example, Bernard,
Eaton, Jensen and Kortum, 2003; Melitz and Ottaviano, 2008; Atkeson and
Burstein, 2008) but also for the magnitude of the welfare gains associated with
trade (Edmond, Midrigan and Xu, 2015). Indeed, in addition to the usual impact
of openness to trade, it could also reduce the adverse effects of the dispersion
of markups through the resulting increase in competition, thereby boosting its
positive effects.

First,
as expected, when fiscal policy is passive, Bertrand competition generates a
distribution of markups such that firms that are larger – hence the more
productive firms – offer lower prices, attract larger market shares and obtain
higher profit margins. Moreover, the mechanism for the selection of exporting
firms described by Melitz (2003) implies that these firms are more productive
and therefore charge higher markups. These results are intuitive and consistent
with the observed distribution of markups (see Holmes, Hsu, and Lee, 2014).

Second,
we characterize the optimal allocation of resources and show how it can be
implemented. The best possible equilibrium fully corrects for price distortions
and implies a zero dispersion of markups and a near zero level of markups. It
is implemented, as is often the case in this literature, by generous subsidies
that cancel out markups while preserving the incentive for firms to enter
domestic and export markets, i.e. by allowing them to cover the fixed costs of
entry. This first-order equilibrium can be achieved using a combination of subsidies
for a firm’s specific sales, a tax scheme on profits that differentiates between
non-exporting and exporting firms, and a specific labour tax.

In
a similar model where markups are assumed to be the same for all firms, the
best equilibrium is the same but, in contrast, much easier to implement through
a single policy instrument: a uniform and time-varying subsidy for all firms.

In
both cases, the gains associated with such policies are very large compared to the
laissez-faire case, representing a potential increase in household consumption
of around 15%. However, given the complexity of implementing a scheme with
heterogeneous markups and a cost to the public purse of over 20% of GDP –
implementation requires large amounts of subsidies, whether the markups are
heterogeneous or homogeneous – we consider second-order alternative policies,
where the number of policy instruments is limited and the government budget must
be balanced. We find that these restrictions significantly reduce the ability
of policy makers to cut the welfare losses associated with the laissez-faire
equilibrium, and that only one-third of the potential welfare gains can be
implemented in this case.

Third,
while the first-order allocations are independent of the degree of pricing
behaviour, we find that the welfare losses observed in the laissez-faire
equilibrium are lower when markups are heterogeneous and higher on average than
the markups observed in the absence of strategic pricing. While this may seem
surprising, the result can be rationalized by considering the effects of markup
dispersion on both the intensive markup – the
quantity produced per firm – and the extensive markup – the number of firms in
the markets. Indeed, Bertrand competition implies that the dispersion and the
average level of markups are positively related. Markup dispersion thus
increases the level of markups with two effects. On the one hand, all other
things being equal, higher markups reduce the quantity produced by each firm – the
intensive markup – and induce a misallocation of resources that generates
welfare losses. On the other hand, higher markups imply higher expected profits
for potential entrants, which stimulates entry and thus increases the number of
existing firms – the extensive markup. According to our model, the welfare
gains associated with the second effect dominate the welfare losses associated
with the first effect. The result therefore implies that the dispersion of markups
can generate welfare gains, at least when no other tax or industrial policy is
pursued.

Fourth,
while the previous results mainly focus on the implications of our model and
the associated optimal policies on average over time, we also study their
dynamic properties. Within the framework of passive (laissez-faire) fiscal
policies, when the economy experiences aggregate productivity shocks – technological,
for instance – the model behaves broadly like the Ghironi and Melitz (2005)
model. An original prediction of our model is that markups are globally
countercyclical while export markups are procyclical. The optimal policy
involves adjustments in tax rates in order to reverse this trend, to align all markups
over the business cycle and to make all markups procyclical. These results are
consistent with the findings of studies that focus on the optimal cyclical
behaviour of markups with heterogeneous firms in closed (Bilbiie, Ghironi and
Melitz, 2019) and open (Cacciatore and Ghironi, 2020) economy models. However, conditionally
on aggregate productivity shocks, the dispersion of markups has little effect
quantitatively compared to a similar model with homogeneous markups.

Finally,
in the spirit of Edmond, Midrigan and Xu (2015), we conducted a trade
liberalization experiment whereby the costs of trade gradually and permanently
decline to almost zero. We find that the long-run welfare gains are much larger
when the policy implemented is optimal. On the other hand, the laissez-faire
equilibrium indicates that short-run welfare gains are affected by markup
dispersion. Indeed, markup dispersion affects the dynamics of business creation
resulting from trade liberalization in a critical way. As in Edmond, Midrigan
and Xu (2015), markup dispersion reduces the long-run welfare gains from trade,
but for a different reason: it affects the dynamism of business creation and
reduces the number of firms in the long run. However, since in this case fewer
resources are invested in the short run to create new companies, consumption
increases more at the intensive markup in the short and medium run – less than
10 years. While the long-run welfare gains from trade integration vary from 12%
to 14.5%, depending on the calibration, the short-run welfare gains with
heterogeneous markups can be up to 3% larger than with homogeneous markups.

The
conclusions of this study lead to an approach to corporate profit margins that
is more nuanced than that usually found in the literature. Indeed, while the markups
and their dispersion do have negative effects on the economy, they also have an
important role to play in the phenomena of business entry and participation in
international markets. Our work is a complement to a strictly microeconomic
approach to industrial policy issues, which would conclude unequivocally that
the market power at the origin of these markups is harmful. As such, in the
manner of Schumpeter, this calls for a more balanced view of the role of company
markups in modern economies, which would show a tension between distortions of
competition and incentives to business creation.

Bibliographic references

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dispersion of Mark-ups in an Open Economy”.

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Christina Patterson and John Van Reenen, 2017, “Concentrating on the Fall of
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